The Development of Addiction

Whether sensory perceptions, behaviors, experiences, or drugs give us feelings of happiness — without the neuronal reward systems in our brain, nothing works.

Discovery of the Reward System

In 1954, American neuroscientists James Olds and Peter Milner discovered the existence of these systems. They implanted small electrodes into the brains of rats and electrically stimulated them.

The stimulation was so pleasant for the animals that they constantly stayed in the places where the scientists switched on the stimulation. They quickly learned to press a lever to administer their own doses of happiness.

The addiction memory had been found.

The Experiment with the Electric Grid

The scientists went even further. They placed an electrified grid between the rat and the happiness button. Any normal rat refused to cross the grid — the electric shocks were extremely painful.

Not so the rat with the electrode in the reward system. It willingly endured the torment of painful electric shocks to reach its beloved switch.

The Human Experiment

In a third step, the scientists implanted such an electrode into the reward center of a severely depressed female patient (with her consent).

Already upon the first stimulation, the patient began to laugh. But similar to the rats, she then demanded increasingly frequent and longer stimulation and became aggressive when denied.

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The Reward System

The reward system essentially consists of three elements:

1. Nucleus accumbens — part of the limbic system responsible for emotions (key role)
2. Ventral tegmental area in the midbrain
3. Prefrontal regions of the cerebral cortex (behind the forehead)

The Role of Dopamine

The nucleus accumbens contains nerve cells that use the neurotransmitter dopamine for signal transmission. This substance is primarily responsible for making us repeatedly seek situations that produce feelings of happiness.

Dopamine represents a kind of chemical master switch of desire and is an important element in the development of addiction.

Addictive Substances and Dopamine

Addictive substances such as cocaine, heroin, ecstasy, and opiates release increased amounts of dopamine in the reward system.

Other Neurotransmitters

The dopamine system receives assistance from other neurotransmitters:

Endogenous opioids (Endorphins):

• Bind to opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens
• Produce feelings of pleasure up to intoxication
• Studies on bungee jumpers showed a 200-fold increase in beta-endorphins during and after the jump

Cannabinoids:

• Active substances (THC) in hashish and marijuana
• Dock onto specific receptor molecules
• Lead to increased release of dopamine
• Endogenous anandamides play a role in forgetting traumatic experiences

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The Path to Dependence

After taking chemical drugs, happiness is usually only short-lived. As soon as the effect wears off, mood drops rapidly. The user feels dejected, profoundly sad, and experiences emotional pain — which leads to reaching for the drug again.

Tolerance Development

With long-term drug abuse, the neuronal circuits of the reward system become increasingly dulled. Ever higher doses must be taken to achieve the desired euphoric effect.

At some point, drug use only serves to avoid the often severe physical and psychological withdrawal symptoms.

The Borderline Parallel

The same applies to borderline relationships. At some point, the partner reaches the point of trying to consume this “drug” called the person with borderline — which is destroying them — in order to escape the tormenting psychological pain.

There is no difference from taking chemical drugs — the reward system does not care which drug it is given.

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Conditioning and Reward

Reward — that is, the reward system’s recording of the reward (formation of neuronal networks) — possesses a decisive moment of original motivation.

Once the association between the conditioned stimulus and response is established, repetition of the reward creates a reinforcement of the conditioned response (conditioning). Its absence over a certain period of time leads to extinction.

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Happiness and Unhappiness

Two Types of Happiness

1. Fateful happiness (luck/fortune) — given by chance, cannot be forced, rarely lasting
2. Inner happiness (happiness/bonheur) — independent of external circumstances, can be influenced and learned

The Flow Theory

Happiness researcher Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi developed the flow theory: people most reliably experience happiness when they become fully absorbed in an activity.

Characteristics of the flow state:

• Time is forgotten
• No questioning of the activity
• No feeling of compulsion or pressure
• No ruminating
• Concentration with simultaneous effortlessness
• Feeling, willing, and thinking in harmony

Flow is most easily achieved when playing, exercising, gardening, or pursuing hobbies.

Thought Patterns for Happiness and Unhappiness

All people develop thought patterns with which they evaluate their lives — therein lie the roots of happiness and unhappiness:

Unhappy people:

• View difficult periods of life as permanent (“I’m finished”)
• Generalize failures (“I have no luck in love”)
• Fundamentally blame themselves

Happy people:

• Feel confirmed in their optimistic attitude
• Say “I had no luck with this woman/man”
• First look for reasons for failures in the circumstances in order to correct them

The Power of Thoughts

Through my inner attitude, through my thoughts, I determine to a large extent my biochemical “happiness” metabolism. I determine whether I seek externally influenced happiness or find the lasting happiness within myself.